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THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INSANE 



BY 



CLARA HARRISON TOWN, Ph. D. 

RESIDENT PSYCHOLOGIST, FRIENDS ASYLUM FOR THE INSANE, 

FRANKFORD, PA. 



PHILADELPHIA 

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC PRESS 
1909 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INSANE 



BY 

CLARA HARRISON TOWN, Ph. D. 

RESIDENT PSYCHOLOGIST, FRIENDS ASYLUM FOR THE INSANE, 

FRANKFORD, FA. 



PHILADELPHIA, PA. 

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC PRESS 
1909 



\1 - 



Gin 

The Oui^ersttf 

SE1 



TOWN PRINTING COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA 



THESIS 

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the 

University of Pennsylvania, in Partial Fulfilment of 

the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor 

of Philosophy 



Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/trainofthoughtexOOtown 



THE THATX OF THOUGHT. 



In observing and studying experimentally the patients at 
Friends' Asylum for the Insane, Frankford, one test has proved 
especially fruitful of results. 

The test is that used by Prof. Lightner Witmer for the study 
of association. The subject is required to write a list of words, 
one below the other, during a period of fifteen minutes. He is 
directed to write without pause or choice each word as it occurs 
to him. The experimenter records the number of words written 
during the first two minutes, and during the first, second and 
third periods of five minutes each. This fifteen minute test fur- 
nishes material for the study of (1) the forms of association, (2) 
the quality of the ideas expressed (perceptual or conceptual), (3) 
the thought content, (4) the rapidity of thought, (5) the effect 
of practice and fatigue, (6) the degree of concentration of thought, 
and (7) the degree of the power of application. 

The trend of thought is not controlled in any way by the experi- 
menter, and the subject writing freely for a period of fifteen min- 
utes, rarely fails to include many words indicative of his individual 
interests and pursuits. In an insane subject this tendency is of 
especial value as delusions are often expressed which would not 
be betrayed in conversation or in a shorter written test. From 
an examination of such a list, therefore, the investigator is usually 
able to determine the general trend of the writer's thought, i.e. 
to determine whether he is literary or scientific in his tastes, or 
whether he is principally occupied with the daily routine of events 
either in the narrow field of personal experience, or in the larger 
sphere of the world's activities. A still closer study of the written 
words will reveal whether the subjects' thoughts have been chiefly 
perceptual in character, i.e. memory images (individual or sen- 

1 



2 THE TRAIX OF THOUGHT 

eral) of past experiences, or conceptual, i.e. thoughts so far re- 
moved from a percept in character as to be essentially abstract. 

The effect of practice and fatigue is learned by a comparison of 
the number of words written during the first, second and third 
periods; the degree of concentration is indicated by the length of 
the uninterrupted trains of thought, and the degree of application 
by the continuity of the effort, by the amount of distractibility 
evinced during the test. 

Lists of words have been secured from forty-five patients. They 
have been analyzed with regard to the seven phenomena above 
enumerated, and the results will be presented and discussed con- 
secutively. 

Association. 

I shall first consider the merits of the method used as applied 
to the study of the forms of association. 

Wundt, (16*), Trautscholdt (15), Scripture (14), Munsterberg, 
(10), Aschaffenberg (1), Howe (6), Smith (13), Cattell (3), Frances 
Kellor (8), and Peterson and Jung, (12, 7), in their experiments 
on association all apply a stimulus, either a word, a touch or other 
sensory stimulus, and record the first associated word, or a series 
of words following this stimulation. These methods test the 
associations resulting from the application of certain discrete 
stimuli, but their results throw no light upon the general trend 
of association in thought uncontrolled by external stimuli, as 
does the method here employed. Moreover, it is frequently dif- 
ficult and sometimes quite impossible to induce an insane subject 
to respond at all to such stimulation. The effort has to be re- 
peated with each stimulation and the experimenter can rarely be 
confident that the subject is giving maximum attention to the 
stimulus, or expressing the first associated thought. Once per- 
suaded to write, however, it is comparatively easy to hold such 
a subject to the completion of the task. 

Aschaffenberg (1) in addition to the method above described 
used one resembling: that used bv Prof. Winner. It differed in 



e numbers refer to the Bibliography, pp. 52 and 53. 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 6 

that it controlled the number of words written instead of the 
time employed in writing them, requiring the subject to write 
just one hundred words, regardless of time. This method, though 
similar, does not possess all the possibilities of the longer test 
which were enumerated above. It is, moreover, inapplicable to 
use with insane subjects, as many of them are quite incapable of 
writing one hundred words consecutively. The methods used by 
Prof. Cat tell (3) and Miss Kellor (8) are similar to that of Prof. 
Witmer in that they require the subject to write a list of words, 
but they differ from it in applying a stimulus to initiate the train 
of thought and also, very materially, in the time limit. Prof. 

""ell's subject wrote during twenty seconds and Miss Kellor's 
ing one minute. Both of these periods are far too short for 
general use with insane subjects, many such subjects requiring 
longer periods for one association reaction. 

To attain any degree of uniformity of test with the insane, I 
have found it necessary to limit the time, not the number of words, 
the shortest lists can then be included in groups for the purpose of 
correlation and comparison. I have found also that much more 
characteristic lists are written when the subject writes for a period 
of fifteen minutes. This time might be lengthened with advan- 
tage but should never be shortened. In addition, then, to the 
light it throws on other mental processes, the fifteen minute as- 
sociation test seems better adapted than other association tests 
for gathering material for a study of association, especially when 
the individuals studied are insane. 



FORMS OF ASSOCIATION. 

The forty-five lists of words furnished a mass of associations 
which it was my first task to analyze and classify. 

Starting with the assumption that all associations are the result 
of neural habit, we may, in this sense, call them all contiguity 
associations. \Yhen a certain brain area is stimulated, the excita- 
tion tends to spread to all those areas previously stimulated with 
it; and when a brain area is stimulated a state of consciousness 
exists similar to that accompanying its previous stimu- 



4 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

lation. These two hypotheses are the basis of the theory of 
association. 

In an adult brain every area must have myriads of associated 
areas, and every idea, therefore, myriads of previously associated 
ideas which it might possibly recall; indeed the possible associa- 
tions of any idea seem to be limited only by the previous mental 
experience of the individual. The fact that it is frequently not 
obvious that recalled ideas are dependent upon contiguity asso- 
ciation is accounted for by the theory that ideas do not recall 
others as a whole but through their elements. An associated 
idea may be made up of many elements, only one of which need" 
be directly related by contiguity to the stimulus word or to one 
of its elements. The associated idea as a whole, therefore, may 
never have been experienced in conjunction with the stimulus 
word, indeed it may be an entirely new combination of elements. 
Just as the fine muscular movements used in articulation may 
be combined so as to produce any one of the some three hundred 
and eighty thousand words in the English language and in addi- 
tion an unlimited number of words from other tongues, so, in a 
highly cultivated mind, may the elements of ideas be combined 
and recombined ad infinitum. 

Which element will be most active as a recalling agent will 
depend upon the past mental experience of the individual and 
the resulting tendency of his mental activity, modified by the 
mood of the moment, in short on what aspect of the stimulus is 
most interesting to the individual at the time. 

With some persons the interest is much diffused and there is a 
probability of sensorial associations, or of a form of ideational 
association which depends for its existence on the association of 
the two ideas in some past experience. With others the interest 
is more and more focalized and the aroused ideas are either sim- 
ilar in meaning or recalled by the meaning of the stimulus word. 
Thus a word may suggest others by its sound, or by the sound of 
any of its letters or syllables; by its appearance, or by the appear- 
ance of any of its letters or syllables; by its meaning or the mean- 
ing of any of its parts; it may suggest a word previously associated 
with it in speech habit, or words and ideas previously associated 
with it in experience though not habitually. We therefore classify 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT O 

associations, all of which are made possible by the facts of neural 
habit or the law of contiguity, according to these several methods 
of recall. 

Before adopting a form of classification I have carefully ex- 
amined those used by "Wundt (16 . Trautscholdt 15 . Kraepelin 
(9), Asehaffenberg 1 . Miinsterberg (10 . Ziehen (17), Orth (11 , 
Claparede (5 . Cattell and Biyant (3 , Calkins (4) and Bourdon 2 . 

Miinsterberg's 10 is inapplicable to the method employed as 
:: applies only to reactions obtained from a noun, a verb, or an 
adjective stimulus. The classifications of Ziehen 17 . Orth 11 . 
and Claparede (5 require too much introspective evidence from 
the subject to be of practical value with insane patients. Ziehen's 
17 main division is based on the presence \ sence of a judg- 

nt, Orth's (11) on the presence or absence of accompanying or 
intervening facts of consciousness. Claparede's is founded upon 
differences in the psychological value of the associations. BGs 
associations without value include repetitions, exclamations, and 
free -sociations, i.e. those which have no apparent connection 
with the stimulus word. He subdivides his associations with 
value into those which are accompanied by a consciousness of the 
assc liative relation and those which are not. Bourdon's 2 is i 
three-fold classification embracing ideational (significant . phonetic 
and grammatical associations. His subdivisions of the first group 
are very minute, and his classification as a whole is most clear and 
complete. 

Wundt fl6, Trautscholdt (15) and Kraepelin (9) divide all asso- 
: "ions into two classes, internal and external. The internal 
includes all cases in which the obje - ssociated are purely ideal: 
the external all those in which the i - iation is of objects of the 
external world. This distinction is made by Fenberg, 

and Bourdon also retains the cl. ion as a subdivision though 

he changes the terminology. Cattell- 3 classification makes 

: distinction the fundamental one, though it appears as in 
Bourdon's classification under a new nomenclature. Cattell 
calls the external class objective and describes it as comprising 
those associations due to previous connection in ::>n: he 

calls the internal class logical, and groups imder this headi 
all associations due to thought. These main groups he subdivides 



6 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

again according to the time relations of the associated words: — 
the objective into coexistence and succession, the logical into 
rification and causation. These subgroups are further sub- 
divided according to the logical relations of the ideas. The fol- 
lowing is a copy of his scheme of classification. 



1. Objective 
Assc ::. ~ - 



T:;:-:ence 



3 v.: -cession 



Coordination 
Whole to part 
Part to whole 

f Forward 

{ Back 



2. L _: 

Ass :":•::;::. as 




_ 



( Correlation 
< Generalization 
j Spc ialization 

| Final 
I Efficient 



Miss Calkins 4 bases her classification on the degree of focal- 

ization :: interest in the stimulus, or in other words, on whe~ 
the recalli::_ gent a ; as a concrete whole or through its ele- 
ments. Hri : : Lass contains Total or concrete associations 
her second, "Partial association of elements :: consciousness 
subdivided into "Multiple," in which the starting point of the 
ti : n i ; Larg : gi up of persisting elements an i Focalized" 
in which the starting point is single element or a small group. 
"The ex writes Miss Calkins, "are obviously char- 

i ::■ of opposing types of intellect, the literal and prosaic 

and the penetrative and creative, which singles out 

lote and subtle elements and qualities of its gi ss content." 
In the light of our results this distinction, though very prominent, 
does not seem so fundamental as the distinction between the cl 
of : ions in which the meaning of the stimuli] - the 

recalling agent, and the class in which the sens y a is 

alone active. If we make this our fundamental distinction we 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT « 

:her subdivide each group according to the 
gree of focalization. 

When the stimulus ts through its meaning there are present 
varying degi pperceptive activity: when on the other L 

the stimulus makes - ich - iperficial impression that : 

racteristics claim the entire attention and one word foil ws 
another simply linke soun .tnce or habit, there is a 

ng indication that the mentality is simply passive: and just 
here we have the great fundamental difference of mental activi- 
ties, the difference between active, logical thought, guided 
dominant motives and the passive flow of ideas depending upon 
the chance impression of a moment. It is here too that we ap- 
preciate the futility, the hopelessness of the attempt tc :::Iain 
all thought processes any theory of assc iation. In mj 

ne s jects the ass ~: ns are unimpeded, rapid and inclu- 
7. one woman, for instan r entirely incapable of reason, wi te 
for me 330 words in fifteen minutes of which 94% w is ted 

one with another: another woman, a dementi . 

>te 112 words, never once breaking the chain of iation. 

Assc native power is wonderfully retained by the in-::: and 
indeed seems to run riot in its absolute sway: what one misses 
is the presence of goal ideas f concentrated motr control 

and direct the associative activity. Facing these conditions we 
l but think that psychologi ss iation considered isal 

ivity breaks own entirely when one tries to apply it to logical 
though:. That there is any train of thought at all depends, of 
rse, on neural habit and when the train is one of superficis 1 
soriaUy arc associati os ss iative activity might suffice 

:i explanation, but when the stimulation arc mental 

ivity, which ght will follow another - jei ns tc letermined 

so much by the -:imulus as by the nature of the appercep:. 
ss itself, and it seems nearei the truth tc say that the apper- 
ts upon the new impression than that the imp: - 
si n acts .;: >n it. 

This difference between sensorial and ideational ass 
appei rs to me to be a fundamental difference, one marking the 

from undirected passive thought to active 
thought, and I have therefore made it the basis : my classi 



8 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

tion. This difference is secondarily recognized in the classifica- 
tions of Aschaffenberg and Bourdon. 

I have omitted the distinction between objective and logical 
association as it appears to me to represent a difference in the 
quality of the ideas after their recall, and not to indicate any 
difference in the method of association, which is all that the pres- 
ent classification aims to embrace. When the idea, "courage," for 
instance, leads to an enumeration of qualities and the idea, "pine," 
to an enumeration of trees, the results seem to depend upon the 
same principle of association — coordination. The fact that logical 
ideas are aroused by the word "courage" and objective ones by 
the word "tree" is determined, it seems, not by any difference in 
associative processes, but by the difference in quality of the stim- 
ulating words, "courage" and "tree". Some experimenters 
who use the distinction find it necessary to note that the number 
of logical and objective associations given depends largely upon 
the character of the stimulus word; if it is abstract, logical asso- 
ciations are apt to predominate, if objective, the associations are 
largely objective. In an additional classification, presented in 
the following section, which aims to throw light upon the quality 
of the ideas expressed, the classes of percepts and concepts are 
fully recognized. 

The classification I have adopted is similar to those of Wundt, 
Trautscholdt, Kraepelin, Bourdon, Aschaffenberg and Cattell, 
though it differs in some particulars from each of them. It divides 
all the associations into two groups: — the ideational in which the 
meaning of the word is the recalling agent and the sensorial in 
which the sound or appearance of the word or speech habit is the 
recalling factor. Both of these groups are subdivided into two 
groups, in the first of which the word as a concrete whole acts as 
the recalling factor and in the second of which some element or 
group of elements acts as a recalling factor. These are again 
subdivided, the ideational, group I, into contiguity and sentence 
form associations, group II into coordinations, subordinations, 
surordinations and judgments: the sensorial, group I, into speech 
habit and repetitions, group II into rhymes, assonances and alliter- 
ations. 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 9 

CLASSIFICATION OF ASSOCIATIONS. 

I. Ideational Associations. 

1. Idea as a whole J Contiguity 
recalling agent. | Sentence form 

/ Coordinate 

2. Element of idea j Subordinate 
recalling agent. i Surordinate 

' Judgment 

II. Sensorial Associations. 

1. Word as a whole f Speech habit 
recalling agent | Repetition 

o -ni 4. r if Rhyme 

2. Element of word . 

< Assonance 
recalling; assent . ,,. L 

c l ( Alliteration 

The several subdivisions in the table may require a few words 
of explanation. 

1. Contiguity associations include those in which the recalled 
idea has been previously experienced in association with the 
stimulus word. 

2. Sentence form associations are such as exist between the 
words of a sentence when the thoughts are written out in sentence 
form. 

3. Coordinations are those associations in which the recalled 
idea is similar to or in contrast with the stimulus word, as apple — 
peach; hope — despair. 

4. Subordinate associations are those in which the recalled 
idea belongs to the same category as the recalling, but is subor- 
dinate to it, the order is from the general to the particular as 
novels — Ivanhoe ; face — eye . 

5. Surordinate associations are those in which the order of 
the ideas is from the particular to the general, as Ivanhoe — novels; 
eye — face. 

6. Judgment associations are those involving a judgment. 

7. Associations of speech habit or verbal contiguity occur be- 
tween the words of habitual phrases, quotations, etc., not only 
those which the subject habitually says, but also those which he 
habitually thinks. 



10 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

8. Repetitions are words used more than once in the list. 

9. Rhymes are associations determined by the terminal sound 
of a word, 

10. Alliterations are those associations in which the appear- 
ance of a word is the recalling factor. 

11. Assonances are associations in which the sound of any 
part of a word is the recalling factor. 

It frequently happens that several of these associative methods 
are involved in the recall of one word. As an example I shall 
cite a case, taken from a list written by a normal subject, in which 
alliteration combined with coordination appears to make up the 
recalling process. The subject had just written the word boots 
when a person present asked "Is that the letter-carrier?" (the 
letter-carrier always drives up in a little carriage and one was 
passing at the time), the next word written was buggy, and the 
following word also began with 6 and was in addition coordinate 
with buggy, — bicycle. 

In correlating the material given by the forty-five subjects, I 
have grouped the individual results according to the clinical classi- 
fication of the mental disease of the subjects. Fourteen are suffer- 
ing from the excited form of manic depressive disease, five from 
the depressed form of the same disease. Nine are cases of demen- 
tia precox, nine cases of secondary dementia, and two cases of 
senile dementia. Two are paranoiacs, two are cases of involu- 
tional melancholia, one is an example of psychasthenia (abulia 
and mysophobia) and one is diagnosed as a post febrile psychosis. 

As the lists vary in length from 19 to 358 words I have reduced 
the number of associated words to the percentage of the whole 
number written, and the number of words in each class to the 
percentage of the total number of associated words, thus obtaining 
a fair basis for comparison and correlation. Some of the lists 
included in the groups are so short, nineteen and twenty-four 
words for instance, that one is inclined to think that the small 
number of words may be due to other causes and not to slowness 
and poverty of thought. This, however, does not appear to be 
the case. The subjects as a rule seem to pause only when ideas 
fail. 

It is possible and indeed probable, that in some cases words 



THE TRAIN" OF THOUGHT 1 1 

are suppressed which the subject considers as external in or:_ 
In one subject wrote for me three hundred and thirty words 

explaining that she '"heard them,' 7 when asked to write what she 
thought herself, not what she heard, she wrote only forty-two. 
The short list was of course excluded from our results. Other sub- 
jects may have suppresse :ch words without my discovering the 
fact. In such ses the list would be no gauge of the rapidity of 
thought, and the train of ideas would frequently be interrupted as 
the hallucinatory voices usually participate conversationally in the 
dominant thoughts of the subject. If this has occurred it has 
caused an error in the tabulated results of the individual c ; r, 
but would hardly have happened frequently enough to alter the 
group average materially. 

It is rdso possible that the mere act of writing the word- even 
without pause may impede the thought and render the lists value- 
Less as a test : : its apidity. The experiments of Aschaffenberg 
(1) and Cattell (3) negative this idea. Aschaffenberg had a sub- 
ject write in shorthand, and he found no increase in number of 
words. Prof. Cattell experimented on the train of ideas ^"~ing 
one word and requiring the subject to write for twenty seconds. 
In comparing this method with that of naming the £: st ; - r-ciated 
word he says :hat "the number of the ideas was complicated by 
the need of writing them down, but the results seem to show that 
the number of ideas was limited, not bv the rate of writine. but 
by the rate of though" Miss Kellor (8), in experimenting with 
criminals, required them to write for one minute after applying 
imulus. For the negroes who were unable to write, the words 
were written down by the experimenter as the subject spoke them. 
This resulted in an increased rate for them in comparison with 
the white criminals who wrote with difficulty, but not in compari- 
son with the student clas- For the average educated individual 
it would seem that the number of words is limited by the rapidity 
of thought and not by the speed of writir.^ 

If we at first treat our material as one large group, we are sti :k- 
ingly impressed by the great predominance of sensorial associa- 
tion- rable VIII. p. 45 . The percentage of sens ri assc :ia- 
tior " ich in -:hatonth^ _ -" ftheasso- 

_ en depended merely on the sound or appearance of a 



12 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

word or on habitual verbal contiguity — that is, on visual, auditory 
and kinaesthetic impressions. The average for alliteration, 19% 
was the highest of the subgroups of sensorial association, indicat- 
ing that the visual elements of the stimulus were most active as 
recalling factors. Repetition follows with an average of 10%. It 
is interesting to note here that both Aschaffenberg and Sommer 
consider repetition a sign of pathological condition and state that 
it is not resorted to in conditions of normal fatigue. 

Of the average 54.4% for ideational associations, 24% belong 
to the class of sentence form associations which is the most super- 
ficial form of ideational associations. This leaves only an average 
of 30.4% of associations in the groups of logical thought; of these 
29% belong to the classes of contiguity and coordination, leaving 
only 1.4% to be divided between the three remaining classes 
which represent the more complex forms of thought. 

If we arrange the classes of association in the order of per cent 
of associations given under each, starting with the class in which 
the largest percentage is given, we have the following succession — 
sentence form, alliteration, contiguity, coordination, repetition, 
speech habit, rhyme, assonance, surordination, subordination 
and judgment. If we group the individual subjects according 
to classes in which each gives the greatest per cent of associations, 
Ave find that sentence form associations predominate with 35% 
of the subjects, alliterations with 22%, contiguity associations 
with 15%, speech habit with 13%, coordinations with 9% and 
repetitions with 6%. The other classes take first place with 
none. 

The dominant characteristic of the thought of the insane seems 
to be a very superficial association. Thought of this character 
lends itself so readily to an associative explanation that one does 
not wonder that Locke, the first to employ the term " association 
of ideas," invoked it to explain the aberrations of thought, and 
that Hume also, only found it necessary to assume such a process 
in the attempt to explain "mistakes of thought" and " sophisms". 

Personal experience in experimenting with the patients brings 
the superficiality of their associations even more impressively 
before one than does an examination of the tables, as the super- 
ficiality is very pronounced in those patients who have not suffi- 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 13 

cient application to conform to the requirements of the test. 
Many of the patients whom I examined either could not or would 
not write for fifteen minutes, but would write for two, five or ten 
minutes, and with these the tendency to alliteration and other 
sensorial associations was as a rule, very marked. A patient 
who was too suspicious to write for me or to comply with the 
requirements of any test, showed the tendency quite as clearly 
in her conversation. She was greatly confused and her conscious- 
ness would seize upon a letter of a word as a basis for her next 
thought. Noticing another patient who was mounting some 
steps, she said, "She goes up and I go down — up — down — u — d, 
you — damned, that is what it means — that is what it means, I am 
damned," and so on. It would seem that some single element 
of the impression rather than the impression as a whole acts as 
controlling agent, and that even that element acts in a most cir- 
cumscribed manner, arousing so little mental activity that the 
word as a whole is not apperceived. Sounds and the appearance 
of letters, which by a normal individual would be entirely over- 
looked, owing to his greater interest in the idea suggested, now 
occupy the centre of attention. There is an apparent increase 
in the sensitivity to sense impressions, which is probably due to a 
depression of intellectual activity and a consequent turning of 
the attention to sensory impressions rather than to an increase 
in sensorial activity or impressionability. Such a depression of 
intellectual activity which leaves the field of consciousness clear 
for sensory impressions may account for a mental condition many 
times described by normal persons who have experienced some 
great mental shock. They report an unusually clear conscious- 
ness of the minute details of their surroundings, a consciousness 
so clear, that at the time they vaguely wonder how they can notice 
such trifles, while later the whole scene stands out in bold relief in 
their memories. The shock has for the moment blocked all 
power of voluntary thought and sensory impressions usurp the 
field of consciousness. Patients in whom such a condition 
persists are painfully aware of every sound in their vicinity. 
Many interpret these sounds most erroneously, frequently fit- 
ting them with words — a striking clock says to one patient, 
'What are you after, what are you after?" a creaking pair of 



14 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

shoes to another, "I am taking it with me, taking it with me/ 7 etc. 
These words are externalized and localized with the noise heard, 
the patient believing that the words come from without as surely 
as does the tick or the squeak. The thoughts which these words 
represent are so entirely involuntary, so passive and beyond con- 
trol, that their personal character is lost and a slight sensory stim- 
ulation is sufficient to establish an associative link by which they 
are externalized and their existence accounted for. This symptom 
of believing the thoughts to be in some way apart from the per- 
sonality is a very common one. There seems to be a splitting 
off of part of the consciousness from the part which the patient 
considers as forming his own body of thought. The division is 
so complete, so absolute, that many such patients cannot be made 
to believe that they themselves are authors of these thoughts. I 
have had a patient say "They cannot be my thoughts, for they 
are so unlike anything I have ever thought." 

Patients interpret the condition variously. Some think they 
hear the still small voice of God within them, some think that 
others are communicating with them by telepathy, or controlling 
their thoughts by hypnotism, while still others think that enemies 
are making use of their brain, their ideas, and dearly bought 
knowledge for their own purpose. A large number, as above 
stated, connect the words with sounds coming from the external 
environment, locating them wherever they are conscious of a 
sounding object, such as a clock or a bird, while others believe 
that they have the power of hearing through great distances or 
that the words are transmitted by telephone. Many believe that 
not only their thoughts and actions, but their emotions are con- 
trolled from without. 

The one characteristic which unites all these states is the ab- 
solute belief of the patient that part of his thought is his own and 
part belongs to some other personality and is completely beyond 
his individual control. The patients are right, these thoughts 
are beyond their own control, they are beyond all control, for 
they are the direct and inevitable product of passive, superficial 
association, when entirely uncontrolled and uninhibited. 

The conscious personality is the final product of a long process 
of blending and fusing of mental experiences. These experiences 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 15 

live, not as entities, but only in the transformed character of the 
latest experience. Now if this highly complex mental structure 
is weakened by disease, the effect of this past experience is lessened 
or lost and new impressions are received blindly and passively 
and not, as by a normal individual, in the light of the past mental 
life. Words now call up others through their sensory qualities 
chiefly, ideational associations paling to insignificance. The 
patient, conscious of the difference in the character of his thoughts, 
and realizing also that they come quite without volition on his 
part, attributes them to some external source. 

Such, it seems to me, is a plausible explanation of this very 
frequent phenomenon of the division of the mental life into a per- 
sonal part and an impersonal. When the impersonal side of the 
consciousness takes the form of hallucinatory voices it seems 
probable that the thought habit of the individual is largely verbal 
with strong kinesthetic and auditory elements, and that this 
tendency combined with complete passivity of association is 
sufficient to account for the externalization. 

One very interesting case illustrates most clearly the relation 
between passive thought and the splitting off of a portion of the 
consciousness from the personality, and the further transition 
from this extrapersonal thought to externalization or true audi- 
tory hallucinations. The patient, before her mental breakdown, 
while she was still considered perfectly sane, became much in- 
terested in some psychic theories suggested to her by "The Law 
of Psychic Phenomena," by Hudson, "In Tune with the Infinite," 
by Trine, and some " New Thought" journals. These theories led 
her to think that perhaps by keeping her mind in a passive, re- 
ceptive condition, she would be able to receive communications 
from others or from some higher source. She made the effort 
and succeeded. She grew so intensely interested in these thoughts, 
which she believed were sent her by God, that she became more 
and more absorbed in them to the exclusion of most else. She 
would be attracted by some beautiful object, would fall into a 
revery, and "be told" a story about it. Wonderful stories which 
she enjoyed greatly and felt were far beyond her power to create 
were "told her" in this way. She voluntarily suppressed all 
volitional control and encouraged the most passive thought; 



16 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

the result was the same mental condition which accompanies loss 

<©f volitional control caused by pathological conditions. 

One day she was told a pretty story about a Japanese par- 

-asol, which she had first been "ordered to buy." She was 
told in detail how it was made by a certain little Japanese lady; 
then finally that the little Japanese lady was present and would 
talk to her, whereupon she heard the little lady talking to her from 
the room. How intimate here is the relation between the internal 
extrapersonal speech and the auditory hallucination, how rapid 
the transition! The main difference between the internal and 
■external voices seems to be one of localization. 

Many normal individuals experience an analogous condition 
to that of the insane patient who hears articulate words in sounds. 
They unconsciously, when the mind is not actively occupied, set 
words to rhythmic sounds such as the "puff, puff" of an engine or 
the twitter of a bird. Several of our common birds and insects 
bear striking testimony to this tendency in the names which they 
constantly proclaim to all the initiated — the bobwhite, the whip- 
poor-will, and the katy-did. With the normal individual the ten- 
dency seldom reaches the point of hallucination, but there are 
many examples of the transition state when the patient feels 
that the words come from without, but reasons against it, knowing 
that this cannot be the case. The tendency in both the sane and 

iinsane is most noticeable when there is a great decrease of rational 
thought and the mind is chiefly alive to sensorial impressions of 
the moment. 

A normal subject in talking over his list of associations remarked 
that when he could think of nothing more to write he used rhyme; 
when his mind was active and ideas teeming the sound of the 
word was lost on attention, but as soon as thought became barren 
the auditory quality acted as the recalling agent. 

When the thought is rapid and unimpeded and at the same 
time undirected by any strong interest or goal idea we might 
expect to find superficial associations in large proportion. When 
the thought is labored and slow, and also barren of goal or motive, 
sensorial associations would again be expected. When, however, 
the mind is possessed by persistent ideas, sensory stimulation 

.may become powerless to hold the attention and then we would 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 17 

expect the number of sensorial associations to decrease and to be 
replaced by ideational associations and repetition. 

The sensorial associations, apart from repetition, which is due 
to a persistence of impression and often to poverty and slowness 
of thought, may be grouped in three classes, — those in which 
the visual element acts as a recalling factor, (alliteration), those 
in which the auditory element acts as recalling factor, (rhyme, 
assonance) and those in which the kinesthetic element, probably 
in combination with the other two, acts as recalling agent, (speech 
habit). It seems possible that the preponderance of any one of 
these classes in an individual's list may indicate his sensory type. 

When there is a more thorough apperception of the word, when 
the past mental experience of the individual meets, clarifies and 
enriches the incoming idea, the various forms of ideational asso- 
ciation result — sentence form, contiguity, coordination, subordi- 
nation, surordination and judgment occuring in the order named 
as the apperceptive activity is more closely focussed on special 
aspects of the idea. Thus we find that in both ideational and 
sensorial associations the ideas are suggested sometimes by the 
stimulus word as a whole and sometimes by its elements. For 
instance the word clock acting through its sound element might 
call forth the word block, acting as a whole through speech habit 
it might recall (clock) maker; acting through an element of the 
idea presented — time, it might suggest life or eternity, and acting 
as a whole, it might, through contiguity, suggest City Halh. 
Speech habit, sentence form and contiguity associations result 
when the idea acts as a concrete whole; coordinations, subordina- 
tions, surordinations and judgments, rhymes, assonances and 
alliterations when it acts through its elements. 

Thus we find that an idea often acts through its elements in 
the most superficial as well as in the most abstract thought, the 
difference being that in abstract thought the element is abstract,, 
conceptual in character, and can only be derived from an ap- 
perception of the meaning of the word, while in the sensorial 
thought the element is purely sensorial. Thus the characteristic 
of the association of elements of ideas, rather than of concrete 
ideas, is not peculiar to the penetrative and creative activities of 
the intellect as is suggested by Miss Calkins, but is also typical 
of the most superficial thought connections. 



18 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

INDIVIDUAL RESULTS GROUPED CLINICALLY 

The accompanying tables (i-viii) present the results for indi- 
viduals and also the average results for each clinical group. 

Of the nineteen manic depressive cases examined, fourteen 
were in the excited and five in the depressed state. 

MANIC DEPRESSIVE INSANITY EXCITED (TABLE I) 

The number of words written by the fourteen subjects of the first 
group is 2389 and the average 171, m.v.80, median 157. Of these 
2147 or an average of 153 are associations. The average per cent 
of associations is 86, the remaining words, 14%, being suggested by 
the environment or some unrelated memory. Of the total num- 
ber of associations (86%) 69% are ideational and 31% superficial; 
45% of the 69% however are sentence form associations, the 
most superficial of all ideational associations, and this leaves only 
24% to be divided among the remaining ideational classes. The 
classes of coordination, subordination and surordination, and 
judgment are poorly represented, none of them amounting to as 
much as 1% with the exception of coordination which numbers 
9%; the balance of 14% is made up of contiguity associations. 

Thus we see that the forms of association are pre-eminently 
superficial, rarely reaching logical thought. The most distinc- 
tive feature of these cases as a class is the very large per cent 
of sentence form associations (45%). In individual cases it often 
rises much higher than the group average, in seven subjects ex- 
ceeding 60% and in one amounting to 94%. Of the fourteen 
subjects seven gave the largest per cent in sentence form associa- 
tions, three in contiguity associations, three in the speech habit 
class, and one in alliteration. 

MANIC DEPRESSIVE INSANITY DEPRESSED (TABLE II) 

The number of words written by the five subjects in the second 
group — the depressed state of manic depressive disease, — is 417, 
the average is 83, m.v. 74.4, median 31. Comparing these numbers 
with those given by the first group we find a falling off of 88 words 
n the average and 126 words in the median. The number of 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 19 

associations is 291, average 58. The average per cent of associ- 
ations is 52; again comparing we find that this is 34% less 
than the average per cent given by the first group. There is 
evidently less activity of thought and also less continuity of 
thought, the train is often interrupted by sensory impressions 
or unrelated ideas. The average per cent of ideational associa- 
tions is 40 and of superficial associations 60, which nearly reverses 
the figures given by the first group. This is largely due to the 
entire omission of sentence form association by three of the sub- 
jects and the small proportion given by the other two. There are 
no associations in the classes of subordination, surordination, or 
judgment, a large proportion, 29%, are contiguity associations, 
7% are coordinations, and 4% sentence form associations. 

The most striking feature of this group is the large per cent 
(34) of alliterations. The associations of the depressed group 
are still more superficial than are those of the excited group, 
being conspicuously sensory in character: two subjects gave 
their largest per cent in the class of alliteration, one in the class 
of contiguity associations and one in repetition, while the fifth 
gave her largest per cent in both the alliteration and contiguity 
classes, the number of words in these two classes being equal. 

A comparative study of the results of these two groups shows 
that in the depressed cases there is a reduction of the rapidity 
of thought (av. 171 words written by first group, — av. 83 by 
second); a reduction in associative activity (av. 86% associated 
by first group, — av. 52% by second); and a depreciation in the 
quality of the associations, that is a greater dependence on sen- 
sorial impressions for stimulus than upon ideational ones. 

The first group is remarkable for its large per cent of sentence 
form associations (45), and the second for its large per cent, of 
alliterations (34), both for the preponderance of superficial asso- 
ciations. 

DEMEXTIA PR-ECOX. (TABLE III.) ' 

The nine subjects in the dementia precox group give a total 
of 1197 words, average 133, m.v. 73, median 112. The number of as- 
sociations is 1046, average 116, while the per cent of associations 



20 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

is 83. Of the whole number of associations 44% were ideational 
and 56% sensorial; 24% of the 44% belong to the sentence form 
class, so that only 20% is left for the more complex ideational 
associations; 13% of these are coordinations, 5% contiguity asso- 
ciations and 0.9% surordinations. The largest per cent in the 
sensorial group is given in the class speech habit 20%, repetition 
follows closely with 19% and alliteration comes next with 13%. 
In rapidity of thought, this group stands midway between the 
two manic depressive groups — in associative activity it equals 
the excited group of manic depressive disease. Its per cent of 
sensorial associations (56) nearly reaches that given by the de- 
pressed group and it has quite a large per cent of sentence form 
associations (24.4). The group is remarkable for the entire 
absence of subordinations and judgments and for the low per- 
centage of contiguity associations (5). Of the nine subjects 
four gave the greatest per cent of associations in the sentence 
form and two in the speech habit class; in one list alliteration 
predominated, in one repetition, and in one coordination. 

SECONDARY DEMENTIA. (TABLE IV.) 

In the group of secondary dementia there are also nine cases. 
The total number of words written is 927, average 103, m. v. 60, medi- 
an 86. The number of associations is 754, average 84. The average 
per cent of associations is 70. The average number of words written, 
the average number of associations, and the average per cent of 
associations thus fall below the averages given by the dementia 
praecox group and the excited group of manic depressive insanity, 
but do not reach the low mark of the depressed group of manic 
depressives. The average per cent of ideational associations is 
60 and of these 46% fall under the head of sentence form associa- 
tions. Thus only 14%represent the more complex thought ; of these 
11% are contiguity associations and 2% are coordinations. There 
were no subordinate associations and no judgments. These re- 
sults resemble much those given by the manic depressive class, 
excited group, namely 69% ideational associations, 45% of which 
are in the sentence form class. Forty per cent are sensorial as- 
sociations, of these 19% are alliterations, 7% rhymes, 7% are due 
to speech habit, 6% to repetition and 2% are assonances. 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 21 

Forty-six per cent of associations in sentence form and 19% 
alliterations are the most impressive features of this group, and we 
notice that it combines the distinctive feature of the excited group 
of manic depressive cases with the distinctive feature of the depressed 
group. Five individuals gave their largest per cent of associa- 
tions under sentence form, three under alliterations, and one under 
speech habit. 

The remaining eight cases (table V) must be treated individu- 
ally, as groups would be too small to be of any value. 

Two of these are cases of involutional melancholia. The num- 
ber of words written was low, 70 and 34, the number of associa- 
tions very low, 7 and 8, the per cent of associations also low, 
10 and 23. The per cent of ideational associations, however, 
is larger, in one case 100% and in the other 62%; they are divided 
between contiguity associations and coordinations; there are no 
sentence form associations. Of the 38% sensorial associations 
of one subject 25% are alliterations and 13% repetitions. These 
results indicate that mental action is very slow and the associa- 
tion process very sluggish, but also that the few associations which 
do occur are apt to be ideational in character and less superficial 
than those of any group we have examined. 

Two cases of senile dementia are totally unlike in character. 
One wrote 60 words, 29 of which, or 48% are associations. Of 
these 87% are ideational associations, chiefly divided between 
the classes of contiguity and coordination; 13% are alliterations. 
The other patient wrote 203 words, 99% of which were associa- 
tions ; 94% of these were repetitions, 3% were sentence form and 
2% alliterations. 

We have two lists from paranoiacs. These are also quite dis- 
similar. One wrote 73 words of which 43% were associations; 
91% of these are sensorial in character, 69% being alliterations, 
13% assonances and 9% repetitions. The remaining 9% were 
coordinations. It is interesting to note that a second list obtained 
from this patient after six months' interval gave similar results. 
Another paranoiac whom I could not induce to write for longer 
than five minutes, wrote a list of similar character. They both 
chose complicated words, but the actual associative links were 
purely sensorial. The other paranoiac wrote 104 words of which 



22 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

64% are associations; 77% of these are ideational in character, 
3% contiguity, 73% coordinations, and 1% subordinations, while 
22% are sensorial; 20% alliterations, 1% rhymes, and 1% repeti- 
tions. 

One patient, whose condition is a chronic one of mental torpor, 
following an attack of typhoid fever, wrote 234 words, 208 of 
which or 89% are associations. Of these 30% are ideational 
associations, 20% contiguity and 10% coordinations; and 69% are 
sensorial, 59% alliteration, 4% repetition, 3% speech habit, and 
3% rhyme. The predominance of sensorial associations is quite 
typical in this case. The patient is during the greater part of 
the time in a state of torpor. She herself describes her con- 
dition as being asleep, and asks that we come and talk to her 
in order to arouse her. She says that she forgets to think, even 
forgets that she does forget. When her thought is stimulated, 
as by the effort to write this list of words, it is naturally not rich 
in content, and the sound and appearance of the words act im- 
mediately as recalling agents, without the meaning of the words 
fusing with any previously experienced ideas. 

The psychasthenic furnishes us with a list differing in character 
from all the others. She wrote 90 words, 86 of which or 96% 
are associations. 91% of the associations are ideational, of these 
67% are coordinations, 12% subordinations, 9% surordinations 
and 3% contiguity associations. Of the 8% of sensorial associa- 
tions 6% are alliterations and 2% rhymes. The list is remarkable 
for its high per cent of ideational associations and also for con- 
taining the largest per cent of surordinations and subordinations 
given by any patient. There is more complex thought expressed 
than in any other list. 

Finally we present a table (table VI) showing in which class of 
associations the individuals of each group gave their largest per- 
centage. This table shows, as do also the percentage tables, 
that sentence form is most likely to occur in cases of manic de- 
pressive insanity (excited stage) of dementia prsecox, and of sec- 
ondary dementia; that alliterations are probable in cases of manic 
depressive insanity (depressed stage), of dementia prsecox, of 
secondary dementia and of paranoia. 

It shows also that the typical characteristic of a group is not 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 23 

predominant in the list of every individual of that group; this is 
to be expected, as a group is not characterized by its largest class 
of associations alone but by several prominent ones. For instance 
the excited group of manic depressive disease is distinguished, 
not by sentence form associations alone, but also by speech habit 
and contiguity associations; the depressed group of the same disease 
not by alliterations alone, but also by contiguity associations and 
repetition; dementia prsecox, not by sentence form and speech 
habit only, but in addition by repetition, alliteration and coordina- 
tion; secondary dementia not by sentence form alone, but by alliter- 
ation and contiguity as well. Therefore there is quite a latitude 
for individual variation within the dominant characteristics of 
any given group. 

RESULTS OBTAINED FROM NORMAL INDIVIDUALS. 

With the object of finding out if possible whether the presence 
of so large a proportion of superficial associations was distinctly 
an abnormal characteristic, I obtained similar lists of words from 
ten normal women. One is a physician, one a laboratory assistant, 
two are teachers, one is a stenographer, one a school girl fourteen 
years of age and four are nurses. These women are, like the pa- 
tients with whom they are compared, of varying age, type, occupa- 
tion and experience. 

Compared with the former study the results (tables VII and 
VIII) present striking evidence of a contrasting condition of 
mentality. We notice first that there is a greater activity and 
rapidity of thought coupled with greater concentration. The 
average number of words written is 212, with the insane subjects 
it is 120, the average number of associated words is 186, with the 
insane it is 98, and the average per cent of associated words is 
86.8%, while with the insane it is 70%. 

This greater activity of thought and larger per cent of associa- 
tions were to be expected but the most striking result is the con- 
trast in the number of ideational and sensorial associations. The 
normal subjects give an average of 86.3% of ideational associations 
and only 14% of sensorial associations while the insane subjects 
give, it will be remembered, 54% of ideational and 46% of sen- 
sorial associations. 



24 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

Examining the sub-classes we find, moreover, that the normal 
subjects give only 4.9% of sentence form associations while the 
insane subjects give 24%. If we deduct from the ideational total 
of each group the number of sentence form associations, which 
comprise the most superficial associations of the ideational group, 
we find a still greater contrast, 81% and 30%. Thus the 86% 
is largely representative of the deeper kind of thought connection; 
51.9% are contiguity associations, 16.4% are coordinations, 5.7% 
are subordinations and 5.7% judgment associations. 

In the sensorial group, speech habit leads with 6.4%, allitera- 
tion follows with 4.9%, then comes rhyme with 1%, assonance 
with 0.62% and repetition with 0.3%. The order of the sensorial 
associations with the insane was alliteration, repetition, speech 
habit, rhyme and assonance. Rhymes we find almost absent 
in the lists written by sane subjects and are reminded again of 
Aschaffenberg's and So miner's opinion that rhyming is a patho- 
logical symptom. 

Contiguity associations are very numerous and show how 
large a part the pure memory of past experience plays in the 
thought of most of us. The number of associations in this class 
is more than three times as great as the number in the correspond- 
ing class for the insane subjects, and in nine of the normal lists 
the number of contiguity associations surpasses the number in any 
other class. (Table VI). We note also that the class of subordi- 
nation is fourteen times as great in normal subjects as the class of 
surordination. This agrees with Cattell's results in which subor- 
dinations are more frequent than surordinations. 

The most striking result of the comparison is the vastly greater 
number of ideational associations given by the sane subjects and 
the correspondingly smaller number of sensorial associations. 

It would seem that there are two agents which determine the 
succession of thought — one the sensorial impression of the mo- 
ment and one the attendant apperceptive mass. When the first 
agent is all powerful the result is a sensorial association, when the 
power of the second predominates an ideational association re- 
sults. In the insane this apperceptive mass (by which is meant 
not the memory of, but the mental result of previous mental 
experience, — the intellectual acumen of the individual), is in- 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 25 

active. With a sane individual each impression is made upon 
an already active mentality, which greatly modifies the impres- 
sions, sometimes completely transforming them, and determines 
in large part what the next idea shall be. 

With a sane subject an impression often calls up a large number 
of associations, a succession of words is frequently written all of 
which refer to the first impression, or the first association written 
leads to a series of words after which the thought reverts to the 
first idea and follows out a different trend. But the ideas pre- 
sented are all powerful; rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc. are 
barred out by the sheer activity of the intellect. With large 
numbers of the insane on the contrary the mental activity is 
entirely unguided and is at the mercy of every chance impression, 
the associations are involuntary, passive and free. We find no 
abnormality in the passive associative processes, they on the 
contrary, act most readily and smoothly. The abnormality lies 
in the inability to guide the thought, in an absence of true mental 
perspective, which results in the sane from the apperceptive ac- 
tivity. 

Thus the distinction taken as the basis of our classification, 
the distinction between active apperceptive thought and a passive 
associative connection proves also to be the chief distinction 
between the mentality of the sane and the insane. 

Finally we shall compare the averages given by the normal 
group with those given by the several insane groups, (table 
VIII). Comparing with the excited .group of manic depressive 
cases we find that in the latter group the percentage of ideational 
associations is much smaller (86.3-69) while the percentage of 
sensorial associations is correspondingly larger (14-31). The 
greatest difference lies in the groups of sentence form and con- 
tiguity associations. The number of sentence form associations 
greatly exceeds the number given by the normal group (45%- 
4.9%) while the contiguity associations are much fewer in number 
(14%-51.9%). Coordinations occur nearly twice as often in 
the normal group, subordinations and judgments are also much 
more numerous while surordinations are only slightly more fre- 
quent. 

Next examining the depressed group of manic depressives we 



26 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

find that the per cent of ideational associations is less than one- 
half as great as that of the normal group (40%-86.3%) and the 
per cent of sensorial associations more than four times as large 
(60%-14%). In the sub-classes the greatest contrasts lie in the 
class of alliterations (34%-4.9%) i n the class of rhymes (9%-l%) 
and in repetition (ll%-0.35%). On the ideational side we find 
the sentence form associations about normal in number (4%-4.9%) ; 
the coordinations somewhat below (7%-16.4%), and the contiguity 
associations still more below the normal (29%-51.9%). The 
subordinations; surordinations and judgments are entirely lacking 
in this group. 

In the dementia praecox group we have again about half as 
many ideational associations and four times as many sensorial 
associations (44% and 56%-86% and 14%) as is given by the 
normal group. Again the sentence form group is much larger 
(24%-4.9%), while the contiguity associations are fewer in num 
ber (5%-51.9%). The coordinations and surordinations are of 
about normal frequency while judgments and subordinations are 
absent. The proportion of speech habit associations is very large 
(20%-6%) ; also the proportion of repetitions (19%-0.3%), while 
the alliterations follow closely (13%-4.9%). 

Comparing the group of secondary dementia cases with the 
normal group we find a decrease in the per cent of ideational 
associations (86%-60%) and an increase in the per cent of sen- 
sorial associations (14%-40%). The greatest variations are 
again found in the sentence form and alliteration associations. 
The sentence form group numbers 46% in contrast to 4.9%, and 
the group of alliterations 19% in contrast to 4.9%. There is an 
increase of rhymes and repetitions, a decrease of coordinations 
and an absence of subordinations and judgments. 

One case of melancholia gives a larger per cent of ideational 
associations than that of the normal group (100%-86.3%,). (Table 
V.) This excess is due entirely to the great number of contiguity 
associations (85%-51.9%). The proportion of coordinations is 
about normal and all other forms of association are lacking. The 
second case of melancholia gives fewer ideational associations than 
the normal group (62%,-86.3%). The 62% is made up entirely of 
coordinations. Of sensorial associations, the number of allitera- 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 27 

tions is excessive (25%- 4.9%) as is also the number of rep- 
etitions (13%-0.35%). All other classes of association are omitted. 

Of the two cases of senile dementia one gives the normal num- 
ber of ideational associations, 87%. All judgments, sentence 
form associations, and surordinations are missing, the remaining 
sub-classes are represented about normally. The only marked 
abnormality is an excess of alliterations (13%-4.9%). No other 
forms of sensorial associations were used. 

The other case of senile dementia only gives 3% of ideational 
associations as contrasted to the 86. 3% of the normal group. The 
3% is moreover made up entirly of sentence form associations. 
The list is remarkable only for the great preponderance of repeti- 
tions 94%, the normal precentage falling short of 1. 

One paranoiac gives but 9% of ideational associations (9%- 
86.3%), a percentage less than that of the normal percentage 
for coordinations alone, to which class the whole 9% belong (9%- 
16.4%). The peculiarity in this list is an immense number of 
alliterations (69%-4.9%) there is in addition an excess of asson- 
ances (13%-0.6%) and of repetitions (9%-0.35%). The other 
paranoiac gives 10% less ideational associations than the normal 
group (77%-86.3%). Among these are a larger number of co- 
ordinations (73%-16.4%), contiguity associations are very scarce 
(3%-51.9%), alliterations are frequent, (20%-4.9%). 

The post febrile case also shows a poverty of ideational associa- 
tions (30%-86.3%) and a great excess of alliterations (59%-4.9%). 

The case of psychasthenia on the contrary gives a slight excess 
of ideational associations (91%-86.3%) the contiguity class being 
very small (3%-51.9%) and the coordination class large (67%- 
16.4%) while the proportion of surordinations is greater than 
that of the normal group (9%-0.4%) or of any normal individual. 

Thought Content 

After analyzing the lists of words from the view point of their 
succession, I reviewed them with the object of ascertaining their 
significance irrespective of associative connection. This entailed 
a second classification. 

Eight main groups were formed, — the first including words 



28 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

suggested by the immediate surroundings, the second words 
relating to subjects of study, the third words relating to personal 
experience, the fourth words relating to the general world envir- 
onment, the fifth names of objects thought of, the sixth concepts, 
the seventh proper names and the eighth parts of speech. In 
this last group are placed all words that cannot be subsumed 
under any of the other headings, such words as frequently occur 
when the thought is expressed quite fully as in speech habit or 
sentence form associations. These eight groups are more min- 
utely subdivided, the first into various kinds of percepts, — gen- 
eral surrounding, experiment, etc., the second into a long list of 
subjects, the third into experience and reflection, the concept 
group into literature, science, art, emotion, etc., and the other 
groups into quite detailed sub-classes. 

In this classification the distinction between conceptual and 
objective thought, which the classification of associations omitted, 
is recognized, and, in addition, the individual trend of thought 
is indicated by the proportion of words assigned to the several 
sub-classes. 

We would expect students to give large percentages in the 
classes of concepts and subjects of study, and active workers in 
the world to swell the classes of world environment. Personal 
experience would probably play a large part in most lists as would 
also names of objects. 

I find that the lists vary in their value as indices to the mental 
content. Those of the insane are as a rule of great value in this 
respect. We have seen how predominant sentence form associa- 
tions are, and these are usually reflections of the subject's domi- 
nant thoughts — delusions are very apt to find expression in this 
form. From all the lists of the sane which I have examined 
(excepting that of one man, which does not appear in this inves- 
tigation) I would be able to infer not only the general trend of 
thought of the writer but the occupation as well. 

The number of words given by each subject is reduced to the 
per cent of the total number of words in the list, and the individ- 
ual results grouped according to diagnosis as in the previous classi- 
fication. Separate tables for each group of subjects and one 
summing up the results of the insane and comparing them with 
those of the sane follow (tables IX-XV.) 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 29 

Table XV shows that the most striking characteristic of the lists 
of the insane is the very large per cent given in the class of parts 
of speech. These words of course have very little thought con- 
tent, being for the most part words used to connect the more 
essential ones in a sentence. The excited group of manic depres- 
sives gives 45%, the depressed group of the same disease 30%, 
the dementia prsecox group 37%, and the secondary dementia 
group 38%. Of the eight cases which are not grouped (table XIII), 
one, a case of senile dementia, gives 95%; one, a paranoiac, gives 
38%; one, the post febrile case, gives 20%; and of the others, 
three cases give no words in this class and two cases but 1%. 
The average for the total number of insane subjects is 34%, which 
greatly exceeds the proportion given by the normal group (9%). 

The next fact which impresses one is the large number of proper 
names given by the insane — the excited group of manic depressive 
disease 13%, the depressed group 5%, the dementia praecox 
group 33%, the secondary dementia group 15%, the case of psy- 
ch asthenia (table XIII) 35%, the average of all 14%, while the 
average for the normal group is but 7%, (table XV). Our sub- 
groups reveal the fact that the proper names written by the insane 
are frequently the writers' own names. 

Of concepts we find the smallest per cent in the excited group 
of manic depressive disease (8%) and the largest, strange to say, 
in the dementia prsecox group (21%), while the average is slightly 
higher than with the normal group (16%-14%). 

The per cent of objects thought of is nearly three times as 
great with the sane as with the insane (34%-13%) . In the insane 
groups it drops to its lowest with the dementia prsecox cases, 
4%, and reaches its maximum with the depressed manic depressive 
cases, 17%. One paranoiac gives 62%, and the psychasthenic 
42%. (Table XIII.) 

The world environment class is small throughout, amounting 
to but 2% with the insane and 4% with the normal subjects. 

The personal experience class is also small with the insane, 
never surpassing 5% and averaging only 2%. The average with 
the sane subjects is 14%. 

In the class of subjects of study the normal group gives 5% 
while the insane group reaches only 0.1%. 



30 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

The insane with the exception of the dementia prgecox group 
(7%) draw largely on their immediate surroundings for their 
ideas. The average per cent of words given in this class is 19, 
which exceeds the average of the normal group, (13%). 

Summing up, we find from our tables that in the lists of the 
ins-ane the proportion of words which can be classified only as 
parts of speech is nearly four times as great as in the normal 
group; that the percentages exceed those of the normal group in 
the classes of immediate environment and proper names, and 
slightly in that of concepts. 

The subgroups are of great value in the study of the individual 
cases, but contribute nothing to the study of group results. For 
instance if a certain group of patients gives 20% concepts it in- 
dicates a certain quality of thought; whether these concepts 
relate to literature or science makes no difference. But whether 
they relate to literature or science is of great importance in the 
study of an individual patient in which case the object is to gain 
as great an insight as possible into the subject's mind and to trace 
the origin of delusions, fixed ideas, etc. The following cases will 
illustrate the value of the subgroups: — Case 8, in the excited 
group of manic depressive disease (table IX) gives 21% concepts, 
an examination of the subgroups (which are not presented in 
the table) shows that nearly one half of these are representative of 
religious thought. In the same list we find 3% of the words are 
proper names, and from the subgroups discover that they are 
largely the writer's own name. From these results we would 
judge that the patient had religious and egoistic tendencies. In 
another list written when the patient was in a greatly improved 
condition there are 18% concepts, half of which are religious in 
character, and 9% proper names of which only a fraction of 1% 
are the subject's own. The religious tendency had not abated 
but the egoism evidently had. In a list written by case 11 of 
the same group we find 13% of the words are suggested by the 
immediate environment. On further examination we discover 
that over three-fourths of these are visual percepts. In the list of 
a dementia praecox patient (case 21, table XI) 2% of the words 
have been placed in the class of immediate environment, all of 
these are auditory percepts; 25% are concepts, of these three- 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 31 

fourths are referable to literature. Case 38 (table XIII) a melancho- 
liac gave 90% in the class immediate environment, all but one 
word of which represent visual percepts. Case 6 (table IX) an ex- 
cited manic depressive subject wrote 10% concepts, of which 
nearly one-half relate to music, which was her profession. Case 
42 (table XIII) a paranoic, gave 45% concepts, 88% of which are 
qualities. From the list written by normal subjects (table XIV) 
I would cite that 10% of the physician's words relate to subjects 
of study and one-half of these to physiology and hygiene, (subject 
I). One teacher draws 28% of her words from subjects of study 
nearly all of the words relating to subjects which she taught, (sub- 
ject 3). Another teacher gives 59% concepts of which 76% refer 
to literature (subject 5). Subject 7, a nurse , gives 27% proper 
names all of which are of places. Subject 9, another nurse, draws 
13% of her words from the immediate environment, one-third of 
these represent visual and one-third auditory percepts; she also 
gives 15% concepts, 62% of which are qualities. One readily sees 
from these examples how important the subgroups are in an ex- 
amination of individual cases. The results of the subgroups are 
not presented in tabulated form. To be of interest each list must 
be treated as a separate theme and receive exhaustive study. 

Rapidity of Thought. 

We judge of the rapidity of thought by the number of words 
written in fifteen minutes. 

In some cases where subjects intentionally reject certain 
thoughts the number of words is not a fair index of speed. One 
patient, for instance, wrote for me 330 words when listening to 
hallucinatory voices and chronicling what they said, and only 42 
when she rejected what she heard and wrote her own thoughts alone. 
She was perfectly frank in her explanation, but suspicious patients 
suffering from hallucinations might also studiously avoid writing 
the hallucinatory words and feign poverty of thought. In the 
case above cited the shorter list was of course rejected. Though 
I think it improbable that any of the subjects whose lists I 
included purposely repressed words, we have to take into consid- 
eration the possibility of their so doing when considering the 



32 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

value of the numerical results. I feel justified in believing that 
such rejections were not numerous enough to affect materially 
the group averages, though of course it is possible that some 
individual lists may not be reliable. 

This repressing of the hallucinated words affects the train of 
the associations as well as the number of words written. The 
hallucinations are, as a rule, associated with the personal thought 
of the patient, they form the nucleus of the thought which plays 
around them, both parts contributing to one train of thought, 
though one part is externalized and one is not. 

The average number of words written by the forty-five insane 
subjects (table VIII) is 120 the longest list numbering 358 words, 
was that of an excited case of manic depressive disease, (case 1, 
table I,) the shortest list 19 words, that of a depressed case of the 
same disease (case 16, table II). The average number written by 
the 10 normal subjects (table XIV) is 212 words, the longest 
list numbers 301 words (subject 1, table XIV), the shortest 128 
(subject 8, table XIV). The insane reach greater extremes at 
both limits and their average falls below the normal group by 92 
words or 43%. 

The excited group of the manic depressive cases gives the high- 
est group average, 171 words, as well as contributing the longest 
individual list. The depressed group of the same disease gives 
the lowest group average, 83 words, and also the shortest individ- 
ual list, (table VIII). The average number written by the demen- 
tia praecox cases stands second and that written by the secondary 
dementia group next, (table VIII). 

Table XVI shows the approximate length of the individual lists 
in the different groups. By it we see that only nine lists number- 
ed less than 50 words, and that they represent the groups of manic 
depressive disease, dementia prsecox, secondary dementia and 
melancholia. Fourteen lists numbered between 50 and 100 words 
and represent all the groups studied. Eleven lists contain be- 
tween 100 and 200 words, ten between 200 and 300 words, and 
one 358 words. The lists numbering over 100 words represent 
cases of manic depressive disease, dementia prsecox, secondary 
dementia, paranoia and post febrile psychosis. Of the normal 
subjects five wrote between 100 and 200, four between 200 and 
300 words, and one wrote 301 words. 



the train of thought 33 

Practice and Fatigue. 

The effect of practice and fatigue is shown by the relative num- 
ber of words written in the first, second and third five minute 
periods. 

The fatigue thus indicated is not a motor fatigue due to the 
exertion of writing; for those who write the most rapidly and 
whose hands are the most cramped and tired when they finish 
are the very subjects who steadily increase in speed. The fatigue 
is a mental one, the mind seems to lose its alertness and ideas 
follow each other more slowly. The increase in speed may be 
due to a growing ease in complying with the requirements of the 
experiment, or to an increase in ideational activity due to con- 
tinuous mental application. 

The results are tabulated by two different methods and pre- 
sented in tables XVII and XVIII. The first table (XVII) pre- 
sents the number of cases in each group which shows a continuous 
increase or a continous decrease, an increase followed by a de- 
crease, a decrease followed by an increase, equal speed throughout 
or an equality in the first and second or second and third periods. 
The table indicates that in the excited stage of manic depressive 
disease fatigue shows itself but is overcome in the last period by 
practice. Four subjects wrote with an even speed throughout, 
two were manic depressive cases (excited) and two cases of de- 
mentia prsecox. Eight showed a steady decrease due probably 
to increasing fatigue; six a steady increase due probably to prac- 
tice; six show an increase then a decrease, the effect of practice 
appearing earlier than that of fatigue; thirteen a decrease and 
then an increase, an early fatigue being overcome by practice. 

Nothing particularly distinctive of any of the groups is brought 
out by these results excepting a final increase in speed in a ma- 
jority of the excited cases of manic depressive disease, (ten), only 
one case in this group shows a continuous decrease and one a 
decrease after an increase; two show equal speed throughout. 

Of the normal subjects three show first a decrease then an in- 
crease in speed, and two a continuous increase, thus half (five) 
show a final increase in speed. This proportion is quite similar 
to that shown by the total insane group, twenty-two of the forty 
five subjects showing the same final increase. 



34 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

The second table (XVIII) gives the number of cases in each 
group that wrote the greatest number of words in the first, second 
or third five minute period. Nineteen of the insane subjects wrote 
more rapidly in the first five minutes, thirteen in the last five min- 
utes, six in the second five minutes. Three wrote more rapidly in 
the first and second periods, two in the second and third, and two 
wrote at the same rate throughout. The table indicates that 
with the majority of these subjects the effect of fatigue is greater 
than that of practice. The excited manic depressive group is 
the only one in which one-half the cases wrote the greatest number 
of words in the last period. 

In the first table the final increase means an increase over the 
second period, not necessarily over the first; thus some of the 
twenty-two cases in that group, in our second table are numbered 
with the group writing most rapidly during the first period. This 
explains why while we have twenty-two subjects showing a final 
increase, we only have fifteen writing most rapidly in the last 
period. Of the normal subjects four wrote most rapidly during 
the first period, one during the first and second periods, four during 
the last period and one during the second period. 

The value of this test for fatigue and practice is greater for 
individual diagnosis than for group results. 

COXCEXTRATIOX OF THOUGHT. 



The degree of concentration of thought is indicated by the 
length of unbroken trains of associations. These vary from 4 
to 197 words. Table XIX shows the number of patients in each 
group whose longest train numbers less than 10 words, between 
10 and 25 words, between 25 and 50 words, between 50 and 100 
words, or over 100 words. 

Two dementia praecox cases, three manic depressive cases (ex- 
cited) and one case of senile dementia wrote trains of over 100 
related words. The length of the senile list is accounted for by 
repetition, the length of the manic depressive lists by sentence 
form associations and the length of the dementia praecox list by 
speech habit, repetition and alliteration. Neither subject suffering 
from involutional melancholia wrote more than 10 consecutive as- 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT uO 

sociated words and but one of the depressed group of manic de- 
pressives wrote as many as 19. The subjects affected with demen- 
tia prsecox and with manic depressive disease in the excited stage 
tend to write long lists of associated words. The depressed cases 
of manic depressive disease and cases of melancholia on the con- 
trary tend to write short ones. These are the only distinctive 
group results. Considering the results as one large group we 
find twelve subjects writing 10 words or less as the longest connected 
train, nine subjects writing between 10 and 25, ten subjects be- 
tween 25 and 50, eight between 50 and 100 and six over 100. 

Of the normal subjects, six individuals wrote between 25 and 
50 words in their longest associated train of words, three between 
50 and 100, and one wrote more than 100 words (137). None 
wrote under 25, while the longest trains of twenty-one of tha 
insane subjects numbered less than 25 words each. 

Another indication of the amount of concentration is the num- 
ber of times the train of thought is changed during the 15 minutes. 
The greater the number of changes the greater the distractability 
of thought, the more open the mind to any chance stimulus. 
These numbers are only of value, however, in relation to the total 
number of words written, so we present in tabulated form (tables 
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII), the per cent of words which are associated 
with others and those which are not. The latter number indicates 
the proportionate number of times the train of thought is changed. 

Table VIII shows that the average per cent of words written 
without any apparent associative suggestion is 30. The largest 
average given by any group is that given by the depressed cases 
of manic depressive insanity (48%), and the lowest by the excited 
cases of the same disease (14%). The lowest per cent for an 
individual list is 1; it occurs in three cases of dementia prsecox 
(table III, cases 20, 22, 27) and in a case of manic depressive dis- 
ease (excited) (table 1, case 4). The highest is 90 occurring 
in the list of a melancholiac (table V, case 38.) 

Thus both methods of arranging our results lead to the same 
conclusion, that we find the greatest amount of concentration of 
attention in excited cases of manic depressive insanity and in 
dementia prsecox and the lowest degree in the depressed cases of 
manic depressive disease and melancholia. 



36 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

In the normal group the lowest per cent of unassociated 
words is 4, the highest 22, the average 13.2 (table VII). The nor- 
mal average is thus 17% less than the average for the insane 
patients which is 30%, and indicates a much greater amount of 
concentration. 

Power of Application. 

The power of continued application to any task is often very 
low with insane subjects, and this inability is shown while trying 
to comply with the requirements of the association test, by pauses 
in which the subject's mind wanders entirely away from his occu- 
pation. This in some cases makes it impossible to secure a list, 
in others the experimenter can so urge the subject on that not 
much time is lost, not more than can be made up. This condi- 
tion existed in one of the dementia subjects who gave 99% of 
associated words. She would stop writing, talk a little about 
something entirely irrelevant, then return to her list and pick 
up her thought just where she left it. She wrote the full fifteen 
minutes but they were not consecutive. This was the only sub- 
ject who thus combined the two diverse characteristics of concen- 
tration and lack of application, and strange to say, she exhibited 
them both in greater degree than any other subject, the associa- 
tive connection was not only never broken but 74% of the asso- 
ciations were coordinations — they were names of diseases. This 
is the only subject whose list is included who showed such marked 
lack of application. All the others who showed it to any great 
degree were entirely incapable of completing the task, but the 
uncompleted tests served to throw much light on their condition. 
With many of the patients, although the test failed in its primary 
object, it served to bring out individual peculiarities in a clear 
and forcible manner. The effort to concentrate produced in 
many cases marked hallucinations, in others it led to a betrayal 
of their delusions, while in still others the mere request to write 
was enough to disclose a great mine of distrust and suspicion. 
Thus both directly and indirectly the test has proved a most useful 
one. 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 37 

Its direct results lead to the following conclusions: — 

1. All associations may be grouped in two fundamentally 
distinct classes — ideational and sensorial. 

2. The associations of the insane are predominantly sensorial. 

3. The thought of the excited group of manic depressive dis- 
ease is characterized primarily by sentence form associations; 
contiguity and speech habit associations are also frequent. 

4. The thought of the depressed group of manic depressive 
disease is characterized by alliteration, repetition and contiguity 
associations. 

o. The thought of the dementia praecox group is characterized 
chiefly by speech habit and sentence form associations. Repeti- 
tions, alliterations and coordinations are also frequent. 

6. The thought of the secondary dementia group is character- 
ized by sentence form and contiguity associations and alliterations. 

7. Compared with the normal subjects the insane used in their 
lists more words suggested by the environment, more proper 
names and about four times as many words having in themselves 
little thought content, i.e. conjunctions, prepositions, etc.; they 
used far fewer words relating to objects of past experience and 
about an equal number of concepts. 

8. The rapidity of thought as indicated by the number of 
written words is much greater with the normal than with the 
insane subjects — average 212 as compared with 120. The mean 
variation is much less with the normal subjects. 

9. The effect of practice is most noticeable with the excited 
group of manic depressive disease — the rate of speed increasing 
in the last period with ten of the fourteen subjects. 

10. The power of concentration among the insane is greatest 
in the excited group of manic depressive disease, in which it 
nearly equals the average of the normal group; it is lowest in the 
depressed group of manic depressive disease and in melancholia. 



38 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



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THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



39 



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40 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



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pq 

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ft 



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HOnooeiCHio 
co «o ^ 


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eo qo «r 

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133 
M. V. 73 
Med. 112 


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1 

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i—i i—i 


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1 

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1— 1 


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THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



41 




42 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



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THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



43 



TABLE VI. 
Number of Individuals Giving Thbir Largest Per Cent op Associations in the 

Following Classes. 

















p. 
















3 
















o 
















u 
















o 
















A 
















o 
















cd 
















u 


Insane Groups. 




£ 


a 


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c 






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to 


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< 


14 


Manic Depressive Excited 


3 


7 





3 





1 


Depressed 


1 











1 


3 


5 


Dementia Praecox 





4 


1 


2 


1 


1 


9 


Secondary Dementia 





5 





1 





3 


9 


Melancholia 


1 





1 











2 


Senile Dementia 


1 











1 





2 


Paranoia 








1 








1 


2 


Psychasthenia 








1 











1 


Post Febrile Psychosis 

















1 


1 
45 
10 


Total 


6 


16 


4 


6 


3 


10 


Normal Group 


9 








1 















44 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



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eo co O 

00 ■* 00 
1-1 <-t 


I 

MNNHNHHHHN 

isiq ut spao^ p3}oj, I 

I 


212 

M. V. 50 
Med. 210 


1 ! te3 - 

reuosuag p3}Oj, ncmhn^noonio co 

1—1 CO >"H ■- ' '° H 


i/j CO ^T 

9DUBUOSSV do^odMOOod 
1 


CO 

d 


uoi^-eja^mY 




4.9 


auiXq-jj 


CO 

d'-HCN©!-!'-!©.'*^-'© 


CO 

© 


uoijiiada-g 


do—iooooiNoo 


iO 
CO 

d 


! 1 « 

^iq'Bjj qaaadg «o \ ■*[ 

mdooMH»HHH i to 
1 »o I 


1 ^ 

lBUOia-83pi l^OJ, | »«MO)00(O«fJMO 1 c© 

ajoaosnoooioooio: i oo 


}09ui3pnf 


■-HiOOOcDOiOiOCOO 


id 


uoiyBuipjojng 


J CO 

^odddootNod i d 
1 


uop'euipjoqns 


il)U5iOHMMOil5flO) 


id 


UOlJBUipjOOQ 


OiflONiOOOffliOO)T|i 
-1 — • CO H (N N (N i-t 


<* 

CO 


uuo d aoua^uag 


O -<J< — iCMrHOCOO-f-* 


a. 


Ajm8i^uo3 




OS 


Normal Group 
Subject 


to 

> 

< 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



45 



UOl}T3Uip.ieOQ O t- pj <N M 



uijo j; 33ua;uag m •* •«< & 

1 ■* W Tf 



AimStjuoQ : ^ q u, H (, 

I — CI HM 





suoi^etoossy-uo^ jo ^uao jaj 


f 00 N O -h 

rt 11 H JJ "* 


o 
co 


CN 

CO 




SUOIlBIOOSSy JO }U9D J3J 


CO CO CO O O 

00 15 00 N if) 


o 


co 
co 

GO 




}S|i ui suoiiBioossy p3}oj. 


W » ffl * 3 
"O "O H 00 N 


s. 

as 


CO 




^siq ui spio^ pnoj, 


"- 1 CO CO CO 00 

t> x co O o 

1-1 


o 

I-H 


CO 

CN 




IBU0SU9g IB^OX 


I-H O CO 3 <-i 
CO 'O lO ■* ■* 


CO 


tii 

CO 

1— < 








aou-euossy 


d n h d cq 


IN 

O 

i— 1 


M 

co 
d 

35 

•<* 




uoi^uisiiny 


N ^ CC Ci ^ 
CO i-l fH CN 


c/3 

< 


anuCtfa 


co r~- 

■* 35 ,-i f~ c 


■* 

■* 


T-l 


o 

s 
o 


uoi;pad3-g 


lO i-l Ci CO CO 

1— 1 i-H r-( 


o 


M 

d 


•-* 


IR^H ^333dS 


■■# -* o t> d 

r-l CM 


OS 


— 
d 


HH 2 

> o 

a o 

c 

Z 


^uoi;B3pi pnoj. 


a o ii o oo 
co -n rfi to uo 




CO 

d 

CO 


auauiSpnf 


co 

d o o o o 


q 

d 


»d 


uoiveuipjcurig 


GO 

«-" » iq 

d o d d -< 


CO 

d 


co 


O 

as 

a 


uot^BUipjoqng 


co 

d o O © <N ' 




»d 



co 2 



: C3 

co ! rt 

-H JO 




— 


Ti 








ft) 

c 

ed 


a 


u 


CO 
•73 
!/5 




el 


V 


B 
in 

o 






* 


c 


i— ( 


£ 


> 




i 


V 


rt 






n 


CJ 


z 


u 


<u 




7, 










to 




o 




^ 


W 


3 
O 


ti 




d 
Q 


: 


.5 


>> 


ft) 

c 
a 


ft) 

> 

< 








ft) 


= 


ft> 


, — I 




n 




g 


O 


u 








" 


Q 


o 

o 

■r. 


CO 


O 

Eh 





46 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



TABLE IX. 
Per Cent of Words in Each Class. 



. 


+j 




















c 




















o 




















B 




u 
















g 




CJ 


c 












Manic Depressive 


o 






4) 

a 

c 
o 
u 

V 

c 








x 




Insanity 
(Excited) 


c 

a 
a 

o 




CJ 

ft 
X 
H 

c 
o 

u; 


en 

■4-> 
o 
.° 
'J3 

O 
13 


Cfl 

ft 

CJ 


to 

CO 

s 

s 


o 

cj 
o 

ft 

CO 

«4-( 

o 


o 




£ 


'£ 


75 

o 


o 


u 


o 




5 


Case 


E 


3 
CO 


CJ 
P4 


£ 


£ 


o 
O 




ft, 


o 


1 


3 





20 


2 


6 


5 


7 


56 


358 


2 


88 











3 


7 





2 


77 ! 


3 


3 





4 





5 


8 


12 


67 


94 


4 


2 





11 








3 


1 


83 


135 


5 


8 





2 


8 


44 


11 


3 


24 


241 


6 | 


2 





5 


1 


9 


10 


16 


56 


259 


7 


1 





7 


5 


1 


1 


7 


77 


228! 


8 








4 





2 


21 


3 


69 


288 i 


9 


14 


1 





46 


8 





1 


29 


179, 


10 


10 





7 


5 


36 


28 


7 


7 


73 


11 


13 





1 


1 


11 


2 


4 


68 


202 


12 


10 


7 





2 


1 


13 


38 


28 


116 


13 


2 





10 





15 


5 





68 


99 


14 

i 














10 


2 


85 


2 


40 
171 


Average 


11 


15 


5 


5 


10 


8 


13 


45 



TABLE X. 
Per Cent of Words in Each Class. 





^ 
















' 




c 




















o 


















Manic Depressive 


£ 

c 

s 




o 

O 

c 


5 












Insanity 


> 






g 








x 






s 




o 


p 
o 






Cfl 


a 




(Depressed) 


CJ 

CJ 

s 


to 

o 

_CJ 

2? 


ft 

X 

W 
S 

to 
u 


tJ 
•ft 

2 

5 ; 


00 

ft 

8 I 


CJ 

£ 
cd 

^ | 

5 
p 

o 


c 

CJ 

ft 

co 

o 

10 


to 

5 


Case 


s 

1— 1 


£ 


CJ 

ft 


£ 


£ 


o ; 
O 


ft 


5 

ft 


D 


15 


74 











6 


16 





3 


31 


16 


37 








16 


26 


5 


16 





19 


17 


30 





4 





27 


19 





19 


26 


18 


3 











7 


20 


7 


63 


71 


19 


3 


o 








9 


12 


0.3 


65 


270 
S3 


Average 


29.4 





O.S 


3 


17 


14 


4.6 


30 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT. 



47 



TABLE XI. 
Per Cent of Words in Each Class. 







-j 






















C 






















y 






















fi 






















- 




o 


4J 
















c 




CJ 


c 
















o 




a 


o 












Dementia 


Prsecox. 


> 




ft) 


E 








c 








a 

3 


to 


1) 

Pi 

X 

o 




> 

c 

-r 


!E 

G 


P. 

O 


en 

£ 

c« 


u 
o 

u 

[fl 


tfl 

V 

S 

73 












o 


o 


c 


O 


l~ 


->-> 




Case 


~ 


72 


1) 


£ 


^ 

-— 


o 
O 


Ih 


=t 


c 
H 

112 




20 




















100 







21 


2 








1 


12 


25 


22 


37 


178 




22 

















100 








35 




23 


14 








1 


9 


14 


9 


50 


82 




24 


2 














3 


3 


90 


330 




25 


11 





0.8 


4 


8 


14 


24 


37 


120 




26 


33 











4 


33 





29 


24 




27 




















100 





97 




2S 














0.4 


2 


10 


87 


219 


Average 


7 





o.os 


0.6 


4 


21 


30 


37 


133 



TABLE XII. 

Per Cext of Words in Each Class. 

























p* 




















'-> 




















- 




tl 


+3 












Secondary 







g 


S) 












Dementia 


> 




r 


5 


•--. 






-= 


















w 
















































13 




M 


> 


■n 






— 


~ 




'jf 


CJ 


■g 


w 


3 


|_ 


2 


'X. 


> 
























C 




Cfl 


3 


fc 


y 


5" 


~ 


_' 


Case 


W 


3 
CO 


1) 




> 


-J 


£ 


d 


r^ 




Average 









4 


3 





9 





S4 


41 











39 


19 

















4 


34 


43 





19 








0.2 





0.2 


13 


51 


34 


1 





11 





1 


12 


0.5 


74 


2 





o 


2 


12 


22 


10 


50 


6 











3 


5 


76 


S 


71 














4 





25 


16 





1 








36 





46 


15 





2 


1 


10 


IS 


15 


38 



173 

41 

31 

104 

269 

136 

59 

28 

S6 

103 



48 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



TABLE XIII. 
Per Cent of Words in Each Class. 





-u 




















c 




















<0 




















B 




o 


-t> 














c 




u 


c 














o 






<D 












Miscellaneous 


'> 






H 
o 

u 

■> 

C 








A 




Cases. 


o 

o 


iject 


sonal Expo 


rid Objects 


2 

(!) 
O 


in 

u 

a 


ts of Speec 


al Words 










c 


o 


G 





»-. 




Cases 


M 


xh 


& 


£ 


£ 


o 


to 


c3 
to 


o 

70 


Melancholia 38 


90 


o 








10 











Melancholia 39 


55 








5 


26 


12 


2 





34 


Senile Dementia 40 


' 47 


o 





5 


. 12 


36 





o 


60 


Senile Dementia 41 


3 

















1 


95 


; 203 


Paranoia 42 


. 16 





o 





: o 


45 





38 ! 


73 


Paranoia 43 


26 








1 


62 








1 


: 104 


Post Febrile Psy. 44 


11 











32 


' 35 





i 20 


234 


Psychasthenia 45 














42 


: 21 


35 


i 1 


90 


Average 


31 








1 


23 


19 


5- 


19 


108 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



4Q 



TABLE XIV. 
Per Cbnt^of Wc^rs :;- Each ^lass 





— 




















— 




















B 








































- 




E 


— 














Z 




= 


5 












Normal Grcui 


> 




•~ 


g 








— 






& 




- 


- 


— 
U 




- 


a 


:: 
























s 






> 














- 














CO 






A 


.- 


1 


- 


- 




z 




£ 






































































































Subjects 


- 


'_" 


- 


^ 


> 


o 


- 


- 


~ 


1 





10 


2 


6 


37 


30 


12 


3 


301 


2 


IS 


1 


26 




35 


6 


1 


14 


242 


3 


10 


28 


9 


j 


22 


9 


1 


19 


28C 


4 


21 





26 


1 


24 


2 


25 


1 


190 


5 


9 


1 


1 





17 


59 


1 


11 


257 


6 


26 


o 


7 


1 


64 


1 





1 


162 


- 


6 





23 


6 


:: 


14 


27 


3 


157 


s 


S 





16 


9 


58 


2 





6 


12S 


9 


13 


1 


21 


8 


32 


15 


2 


S 


171 


10 


19 


5 


9 


3 


29 


3 


5 


27 


230 


Average 


13 


4.5 


14 


3.6 


: : 5 


14.1 


7.4 


: \ 


212 



TABLE XV. 
Per Cent op T7;?.z? :n 



Iach Class 



te ar.i 



Normal Groups 



. 










= 










« 










1 




o 


-ta 




g 






~ 




s 




E 


— 




> 




c 


- 




- 




_ 




•Si 


« 






.~ 


•: 


a 




a 




2 


.2 

- 
- 


I 


"3 

- 
o 


I 




E 


j: 


■ 


= 


Q 


- 


3 
GO 


- 


> 


£ 



Manic Depressive 

Excited 
Manic Depressive 

Depressed 
Dementia Prseoax 
Secondary Deme 

r oos Cases 

Average — Insane 

Average— Norm a] 



11 

29 

7 

15 

31 

19 

13 








0.1 



14 



13 



34 



16 



14 



5 


5 


10 


8 


1 


3 


17 


14 





1 


4 


21 


2 


1 


10 


IS 





1 


23 


19 



13 

5 
33 
15 



14 



- 



45 

30 
37 

3S 
19 

34 

9 



171 

83 
133 
103 
109 

120 

212 



50 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



TABLE XVI. 
Number of Subjects Writing in 15 Minutes 





CO 






01 

*3 




CO 


cn 


Insane and 


O 


CO 

V 
5 


en 
•O 

o 

o 
o 

r-4 


5 


13 
u 

o 


Ih 

o 


JO 

3 


Normal Subjects 


CN 

■5 


o 


o 
cn 

c 


o 

o 

CO 

6 


o 
o 

6 


C/2 

3 




m 


lO 


c 


o 


o 


o 


H 

k 




to 


IN 


«o 


,_l 


cn 


CO 






J 














Manic Depressive Excited 





1 


3 


4 


5 , 


1 


14 


Depressed 


l 


2 


1 





1 





5 


Dementia Prsecox 


l 





3 


3 


2 





9 


Secondary Dementia 


e 


3 


2 


3 


1 





9 


Senile Dementia 








2 





■ 





2 


Melancholia 





1 


1 





o 





2 


Paranoia 





o 


1 


1 


o 





2 


Psychasthenia 








1 











1 


Post Febrile Psychosis 














1 





1 


Total Insane 


2 


7 


14 


11 


10 


1 


45 


Normal Group 








5 


4 


1 


10 



TABLE XVII. 
Rate of Thought, Showing Effect of Practice and Fatigue. 









o 


o 




















CO 


■ji 
















y 


y 


cd 

CD 


cd 

ID 




cd 

c 
H 

e 


cd 


y 


y 




Insane and 


y 
u 
o 
C 
i— i 


cd 

CD 
Ih 

O 

y 

Q 


y 

(U 

Q 

c 


u 

CJ 

C 

i— ( 

C 

CB 




3 


cd 

£ 

y 
c 


cd 

CD 

u 

S 

Q 


CI 


Normal Groups. 


3 


CO 

3 


+3 


.0 




^3 


J3 

-1t> 


y 


c 
y 


.CD 

"J? 




O 

c 


O 

rs 
c 


01 

cn 


0) 

CO 

cd 




CO 
9] 

cd 


y 

05 

y 

CD 


5 


5 


3 

GO 




c 
o 


c 
o 


y 

y 

C 


t-i 
o 

CD 


cd 

C 


(U 

y 

e 

1—1 


cd 


cd 

cr 


cd 
■*-> 
O 




o 


O 





H 


Q 


M 


W 


14 


Manic Depressive Excited 


2 


1 


1 


6 


2 








2 





Depressed 


1 


1 


1 


1 














1 


5 


Dementia Praecox 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 














9 


Secondary Dementia 


1 


2 


1 


2 





1 








2 


9 


Senile Dementia 











1 





1 


o 








2 


Paranoia 





1 


1 




















2 


Melancholia 





1 

















1 





, 2 


Psychasthenia 








1 




















1 


Post Febrile Psychosis 











1 

















1 


Total — Insane 


6 


8 


6 


13 


* 


2 





3 


3 


J 
45 


Total — Normal 


2 


2 


i 


3 








1 





1 


10 



THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 



51 



TABLE XVIII. 

Number of Subjects Writing Greatest Number of Words in 



Insane and 
Normal Groups. 


o> 

c 

Si 

u 


w 

4) 

3 
C 

-a 

c 
o 
o 

w 


Third 5 Minutes 


Three Periods Equal 


First & Second Periods Equal 


a 

C 

H 

*d 

T3 

C 

o 
o 
a) 
CO 


O 
V 

IS 

CO 

+j 
o 


Manic Depressive Excited 

Depressed 
Dementia Prscox 
Secondary Dementia 
Senile Dementia 
Melancholia 
Paranoia 
Psychasthenia 
Post Febrile Psy. 


5 
2 
5 
3 


2 
1 

1 


1 

1 
1 

1 



1 
1 




7 
1 
1 
2 
2 






ooooootooo 

OOOOOtOOl-'O 


1 



1 







14 
5 

9 
9 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 


Total Insane 


19 


6 


13 


1 
2 .3 


2 


45 


Total Normal 


4 14 


1 





10 



TABLE XIX. 
Approximate Length of Longest Train of Associated Words. 



Insane and 


O 










iects 


Normal Groups 


Less than 


10-25 


25-50 


50-100 


O 

o 

<N 

6 

o 


TotafSub 


Manic Depressive Excited 


1 


3 


4 


3 


3 


14 


Depressed 


4 


1 











5 


Dementia Praecox 


2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


9 


Secondary Dementia 


2 


3 


2 


2 





9 


Senile Dementia 


1 











1 j 


2 


Paranoia 





1 


1 








2 


Melancholia 


2 














2 


Psychasthenia 








1 








1 


Post Febrile Psychosis 











1 





1 


Total Insane 


12 


9 


10 


8 


6 


45 


Total Normal 








6 


3 


1 


10 



52 THE TRAIN OF THOUGHT 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1. Aschaffenberg, Gustav. Experiment elle Studien liber As- 

sociationen. Psychologische Arbeiten, Bd. I, pp. 209-299. 
1896. 

2. Bourdon, B. Le3 result ats des theories contemporaines sur 

1' association des idees. Revue Philosophique, Vol. XXXI, 
pp. 561-610. 1891. 

3. Cattell, James McKeen, and Bryan, Sophie. Mental As- 

sociation Investigated by Experiment. Mind, Vol. XIV, 
pp. 230-250. 1889. 

4. Calkins, Mary W. Association, an Essay Analytical and Ex- 

perimental. Psychological Review Monograph Supple- 
ment No. 2, pp. 56. 1896. 

5. Claparede, Jean Louis Rene Antoine Edouard. L' Asso- 

ciation des id§es. Paris. Doin, pp. 426, 1903. 

6. Howe, H. C. Mediate Association. American Journal of 

Psychology, Vol. VI, pp. 239-241, 1894. 

7. Jung, C. G. Diagnost. Asso. Studien. Bd. I. 1906. 

8. Kellor, Frances, A. The Association of Ideas. Pedagogi- 

cal Seminary, Vol. VIII, Xo. 3, pp. 341-356, 1901. 

9. Kraepelln, Emil. Der psychologische Versuch in der Psy- 

chiatrie. Psychologische Arbeiten, Bd. I, pp. 1-91, 1896. 

10. Munsterberg, Hugo. Die Association successiver Vorstel- 

lungen. Zeitschrift fiir Psychologic, Bd. I, pp. 99-107, 

1890-91. 

Beitrdge zur experimental. Psychologic Heft I-IV. 1889. 

Grundziige der Psychologic. Bd. I, pp. 483-525, 1900. 

11. Orth, Johannes. Kritik der Associationseinteilungen. Zeit- 

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